Categories
Cops Fieldcraft Related Topics

How to Turn 12 Everyday Items Into Improvised Weapons

Brett and Kate McKay | January 11, 2017

Manly SkillsTactical Skills
coffee pot improvised weapon illustration

“Be polite, be professional, but have a plan to kill everybody you meet.” –General James “Mad Dog” Mattis

While rare, violence often strikes when you least expect it. To counter violent attacks, you need to be fast and furious. Hand-to-hand combatives are a great tool to have up your sleeve to quickly dispatch an attacker, but you should always be looking for force multipliers—tools that make your counterattacks even more painful, damaging, and effective.
Having some sort of defensive weapon—be it a firearm, knife, or spray—as part of your EDC is never a bad idea, but sometimes you don’t have one on you (like when you’re in an area that prohibits weapons), your attacker has taken or knocked your weapon away, or you’re in a position that makes drawing your weapon hard to do.
Thankfully, you’re constantly surrounded by potential weapons that can be quickly accessed to counter violent attacks. To find and employ them, you just need to hone the most important weapon in your arsenal—your mind.
In the right hands, seemingly innocuous, everyday items can be turned into lethal weapons. Such a transformation just requires violating those objects’ Aristotelian telos—the end for which they were made. If your life is on the line, I don’t think old Aristotle would mind.
Below we offer 12 suggestions of everyday objects that can be turned into improvised weapons. Use this as a jumping off point to think of how other objects could save your life in a pinch.
When you’re out and about in public, practice scanning your environment and considering what might be used as a weapon if needed. Think of it as creating mental models for your OODA Loop so you can win the fight if/when it comes your way.

Pot of Hot Coffee

man pouring coffee pot improvised weapon illustration
There’s nothing like the smell of coffee brewing when you first wake up in the morning. And if you’re ever attacked while pouring your cup of joe, you can take comfort in the fact that you’re not just holding something wonderfully fragrant, but a great weapon as well.
Smash the pot into your attacker’s face. The blunt force will stun him, the shards of glass will embed in his kisser, and the scalding hot coffee will make him wish he stayed home that morning.

Coffee Mug

coffee mug improvised weapon illustration
Same principle as the coffee pot, just on a smaller scale. Throw the hot coffee from your mug into the attacker’s face and then proceed to bash him in his fleshy mug with caffeinated ferocity.

Fire Extinguisher

fire extinguisher improvised weapon illustration
Fire extinguishers cannot only save your life in a fire, but in a violent attack as well. Spray the assailant in the face to temporarily distract him and disrupt his OODA Loop. While he’s figuring out what’s going on, forcefully bludgeon him in the head with the extinguisher’s canister.

A Pen

use a pen as an improvised weapon illustration
In the right hands, the pen can indeed be mightier than the sword. A stainless steel pen like this Zebra number can be used to stab an assailant. Hold it with an overhand grip and aim for vulnerable parts of the body like the face and throat. If you really want to up your writing-implement-as-weapon game, get a true tactical pen like this Smith & Wesson.

Keys

car keys improvised weapon self-defense illustration
Your keys can start your car or let you into your house. They can also savagely maim a violent attacker. Hold the keys in your hand so their points are coming out between the fingers of your fist. Proceed to punch your attacker in vulnerable parts of the body like the face and throat.

Locking Carabiner

climbing carabiner improvised weapon self-defense illustration
Carabineers are an important tool for mountain climbers and have become a go-to key holder for action-oriented gents. They can also serve as field-expedient knuckledusters in a pinch. If you want to use a carabiner as an improvised weapon, make sure it’s big enough to fit around your fist and has a locking collar (to prevent it from snapping open while you punch a mo’ fo’). While aluminum carabineers should be able to withstand the impact, for added strength, use a steel one.

Wristwatch

wristwatch improvised weapon self-defense illustration
For a variation on the above, turn your metal wristwatch into a quick-n-dirty knucklebuster by holding the bracelet inside your fist, and positioning its face across your middle knuckles. James Bond uses his Rolex Oyster Perpetual in this way to knock out a bad guy in On Her Majesty’s Secret Service. Keep in mind that the impact of this move will likely break your timepiece. Bond was able to write off the destruction of his watch to his expense account. You won’t. Of course, losing your wristwatch will be a small price to pay if it saves your life.

Aluminum Water Bottle

water bottle improvised weapon self-defense illustration
An aluminum water bottle helps you stay hydrated while avoiding all those testosterone-lowering xenoestrogens found in plastic bottles. It can also be used to inflict blunt force trauma on a violent attacker. Ideally, you want the bottle to have some liquid in it in order to give your makeshift club more heft and weight. Bash your assailant’s head and face with it.
If you’ve got some time and if your bottle has a key ring, put your belt through the ring and tie it off. You’ve got yourself a medieval flail.

Belt

belt improvised weapon self-defense illustration
Just as you should remember that your belt should match the color of your shoes, you should also remember that it can be used as a weapon in a pinch.
First, you can use a belt the same way parents used to employ it on their kids back in the day—for whoopins. But unlike its use in dishing out old fashioned corporal punishment, you’re not going to hold back on your attacker. Give him the ass whoopin’ of a lifetime. Make sure he gets the buckle end of the belt. Aim for the face. The advantage of using a belt as an improvised bludgeon is not only the significant damage it can inflict, but the distance it allows you to put between you and your attacker.
The second way you can use a belt as a weapon is as a force multiplier when strangling an assailant.

Hornet Spray

hornet spray improvised weapon self-defense illustration
I got this improvised weapon idea while interviewing Navy SEAL Clint Emerson. Hornet spray is pepper spray on steroids. The former can usually shoot up to 20 feet and provides a much more directed stream than you find with the latter. What’s more, the chemical used in hornet spray is much more potent than pepper spray and can potentially permanently blind an attacker.
Keep in mind, that due to the possible maiming effects of hornet spray, one should only use it in life-threatening situations (like during a home invasion). Using hornet spray as an everyday self-defense tool is illegal in most jurisdictions.

Flashlight

flashlight improvised weapon self-defense illustration
Every man should not only carry a flashlight, but know how to use it in a tactical scenario. Not only can it help you find stuff in the dark and act as a deterrent to would-be attackers, it can also be used as a weapon. Maglite Heavy Duty D Cell flashlightsmake for a great makeshift billy club, and many specialized tactical flashlights end with a serrated or toothed bezel that can be used as an improvised striking device during an attack. After you’ve shined the bright light of a high-powered flashlight in your attacker’s eyes and disoriented him, strike his face with the toothed bezel as hard as you can. The motion should be like forcefully stamping him with a giant rubber stamp.

Smartphone

smartphone improvised weapon self-defense illustration
Today’s smartphones have been designed to take a beating; consequently, they can be used to give a beating.
Tightly grasp your smartphone in your hand and slam the edge and corners of it into vulnerable parts of the body like the eyes, nose, and neck.
You could also put your phone in a sock or other piece of clothing to make an improvised sap—a weighted impact weapon.
Whether you’re at home, the office, or out on the town, everyday objects that could be turned into weapons are all around you. Should you find yourself facing a violent threat, be ready to grab something and win the fight.

Categories
California Cops

A good Cowboy Story

Horseman. Passing By.


I encountered the Horseman in Laguna Beach riding along the Pacific Coast Highway. He was ahead of me moving at horse speed. The traffic, hurried as always, slowed to a pause and then pulled around him. As I pulled past him, I could hear the clip-clop of the hooves of his mount and his pack horse. I glanced into the rear view mirror after I got ahead of him and saw the blinking red and blue lights and heard the short bleep of a siren tapped once. The Horseman had been pulled over by the Laguna Beach police for an interview. I pulled in around the corner, walked back, and joined a group of citizens already watching this encounter.
The Horseman was riding to Texas. He said he’d started at the Canadian border. The cop asked him why he wasn’t driving. He said he didn’t have a truck and a horse trailer, just a horse, a pack horse and a dog. His plan was simply to ride the coast to San Diego and turn left until he got to Texas.

He had what he called a “shoulder pass” which he drew from his pocket and presented to the officer. The officer, being confused, was not even sure such a document existed and examined its molecular structure.
Then the Laguna Animal Control officer showed up. That officer informed the cowpoke that he did not have his dog on a leash. Something all good little citizens of California do as willingly as they carry bags of dogshit around in their hands.
The Horseman replied sensibly that his dog (named, I swear, “Dog”) knew how to follow along, and that if he put a leash on him from the saddle he risked strangling the dog.
“Horse goes one way, Dog goes another. Tough on Dog, officer.”
At this point, having been alerted to the Horseman, another police car showed up with another, but more senior, officer. He stood to the side a bit taking in what the situation actually was.
The animal control officer, failing to see the sense of not strangling a dog on a leash tired to a horse, began a hectoring lecture on the very special ordinances of the very special town of Laguna Beach, California. The Horseman stood motionless as the scolding went on. Finally the litany of banal cop-talk was interrupted by the senior officer who evidently had less patience for the Animal Control claptrap than the Horseman. After all, if you are riding a horse from Canada to Texas in the 21st Century, you are probably not in much of a hurry.
In short order, the senior officer informed the others that, regardless of the endless petty ordinances of Laguna Beach, what they were actually going to do was let this man continue on his way. Not only that, they were going to give him a police escort out of town.
I assume the senior officer looked into the near future of any other action. And in that future he saw the issue of providing transport for two horses to some undisclosed location as well as the dog, while they were arraigning the Horseman, was going to be far too much paperwork to contemplate. That and noting about 15 citizens gathered nearby, ready for a sincere chat with the city council probably gave him pause as well.

The Horseman had heard and seen it all before on the long road between Canada and Laguna Beach. He took “The Cowboy Way.” He rolled a smoke, nodded, saddled up, whistled to Dog and was escorted out of town.

That was all years ago and on another planet “in another country; And besides, the wench is dead.”
But I still like to think of the Horseman. I like to think he’s still out there making his way from Canada to Texas — via a left turn in San Diego.
Categories
Cops Dear Grumpy Advice on Teaching in Today's Classroom

What to Do When You Find a Wallet On the Ground

man picking wallet up off ground black white photo

The other day I was running some errands, and stopped by a coffee shop to grab a cup of joe on my way home. As I walked out the door and to my car, I noticed a big fat wallet lying on the ground just off the curb.
I picked it up, gave a quick look around to see if there was anyone nearby who might have dropped it (there wasn’t), and then pondered what to do next.
Should I bring it to a nearby business? There were quite a few around, so it could have been dropped by a patron of any of them, and could I really trust another random person to handle the wallet? Should I rifle through it to try and find some contact information on the owner? Should I return it a police station?
My questions were many, so I ended up talking with some other folks about what they’ve done in this situation, and also called my local Arvada, CO police station to get their advice on the matter.
While I eventually found the wallet’s owner (details of that later), I figured that if I wondered what to do in this scenario, other people do too.
So below I share some quick tips on what I learned you should do when you find someone else’s wallet (or other valuables) and want to be a good citizen and return them.

DON’T Return the Item to a Local Business

This was something the Arvada city PIO (Public Information Officer) was adamant about when I spoke to her. Many folks, when they find something of value — especially outside a business area (or even in a business) — return it to the nearest establishment.
The intent is good — the finder assumes that the person will come back through and ask around for lost items. The problem is that you’re ultimately just returning the valuables to another stranger. Just because someone is donning a work uniform behind a counter doesn’t mean they’re trustworthy.
If anything, go to an employee and leave your name and number with a note saying that you have the item and can be contacted for its safe return.

Try to Find Their Contact Information

This was my first course of action when I found the aforementioned wallet on the ground. I searched around through various scraps of paper and business cards, and eventually found a card with a name that matched the driver’s license.
I felt a little strange rifling through someone’s personal items, but I guessed that the owner wouldn’t mind when he got his wallet back (I guessed right, I learned when I found him).
So I called the phone number on the business card, told the man I had found his wallet, and he nearly cried with relief.
We arranged a pick-up location a few minutes down the road from me, and got the matter taken care of. The gentleman was so happy that he offered to fill up my gas tank, and insisted on my address to send me a card.
Another option here, especially if you find a business card, is to drop it off at the person’s place of work. That’s certainly a more trusted option than leaving it with a random local business.
Personally tracking someone down via their contact information is a little more involved and intimate than the other methods I’ll mention; you have to decide what you have time for, and what you’re comfortable with.
Ultimately, I met a strange man at a gas station. I was comfortable with it, but some people may not be, and that’s okay.
There’s also a risk with this method that the person could accuse you of having taken something, especially if something was stolen before you found it. You certainly shouldn’t feel guilty for pursuing the other options listed here.

Should I Mail It?
Present in most people’s wallets is a driver’s license with a clearly printed address. With this info, you could just drop it in the mail and get it back to the person without ever having to meet. If you don’t want that cost, you can also drop wallets (but not other valuables) off at the post office, and they’ll take care of it at no charge.
While a reasonable option, I wouldn’t recommend it for the simple fact that it delays the return of the wallet by as many as a few days. If I had lost a billfold, I’d be canceling cards and working on replacing items that night if I hadn’t heard anything about its whereabouts. While I’d certainly be happy about its return a couple days later, I would have already put wheels in motion to replace the things in it.
The mail just also isn’t as safe of a delivery method as the others. It could be sitting in a mailbox overnight, or even for a few days if someone is away by chance.
That’s my two cents; it’s certainly a fine option if none of the others are viable.

Search for Them Online

A quick Google search, or perhaps even better, a Facebook search, may yield results in finding someone who’s lost their valuables.
If you find the person and are able to successfully communicate through Facebook or email, you can arrange a pick-up location or make some other arrangement.
If the person has a common name, or your search doesn’t return any good information, you can utilize local Facebook groups as well.
The city of Arvada has a few Craigslist-type groups for locals; while they are primarily about selling and trading various items, every once in awhile you see someone post that they’ve found a valuable and are searching for its owner, and more often than not, it seems like a friend of a friend chimes in with a comment and the item(s) gets returned.
As with the above, this is a more personal approach, and you may not be comfortable with it.

Call/Contact Their Bank or Credit Card Company

Another option, particularly if you find a wallet, is to contact one of their banking companies based on any cards that you find. If you return the wallet to a bank branch of one of their cards, they’ll contact the person, who can then come pick it up.
This is definitely a safe option on all fronts: their valuables are surely safe at a bank, and you’re safe because you’re not meeting a stranger somewhere.

Return It to the Nearest Police Station

Possibly your best course of action, without even having to rifle through the person’s wallet, is to just return it to a nearby police station.
There, it will be kept safe in an evidence room, and the police will make every effort to find the person, pulling up any records they have and even using social media.
If they can’t find the owner by any means after a certain amount of time — 90 days in the case of my local department — it then gets destroyed.
This option is especially beneficial if you find valuables that don’t have any identifying information. The PIO I spoke with said they get found valuables returned to them all the time — from jewelry, to phones, and even photo albums. No matter what type of valuable you find, the local PD can take care of it and your own effort is minimal.

Which Course of Action Should You Pursue?

The options listed above are all good courses of action if you find a wallet or valuables. Is there a best option, though? One that should be pursued above the rest?
As noted, definitely don’t return it to a local business. Also, don’t let your first act be dropping it in the mail for the reasons listed above.
Beyond that, it comes down to what you’re comfortable with, and frankly, what you have time for. If you’re flexible and don’t mind meeting strangers, looking for the person’s contact info and trying to return it in person is rather satisfying.
It’s typically the fastest method of getting the wallet back in their hands as well, which the owner will surely appreciate. You may also get some sort of reward, and while not the point, of course, this is still nice!
If you can’t find contact information, if you’re short on time, or if you just aren’t comfortable with a face-to-face meeting, returning the wallet to a bank or police station is perfectly safe and honorable, and there’s as good a chance as any that the correct person will be found.
Whatever method you choose, at least do something! When you find something valuable on the ground — be it a wallet or a piece of jewelry — don’t just leave it there for someone else to deal with.
Do the right thing: pick it up, and make a reasonable effort to get it returned. You know that you’d hope for someone to do the same if you lost something.
And now, you know exactly what to do when and if the day comes you spy a nice fat wallet staring up at you from the ground

Categories
All About Guns Anti Civil Rights ideas & "Friends" California Cops Grumpy's hall of Shame

The Most Current (of today) California Roster of Handguns Certified for Sale

Welcome to the Jungle!

As of January 1, 2001, no handgun may be manufactured within California, imported into California for sale, lent, given, kept for sale, or offered/exposed for sale unless that handgun model has passed firing, safety, and drop tests and is certified for sale in California by the Department of Justice. Private party transfers, curio/relic handguns, certain single-action revolvers, and pawn/consignment returns are exempt from this requirement.
View list of handgun models whose status has changed recently:

All handguns listed are approved with or without night sights.
805 handguns found.

Categories
Cops

Been there, done that!

Categories
Born again Cynic! Cops

Hey It's New York! (It must be embarrassing to be a Good NYPD Cop at times like this)

Ex-cop: NYPD gun license division was a bribery machine

They might as well have a had a hotline: 1-800-GIFTS4GUNS.

A former city cop spilled his guts Tuesday, telling Manhattan jurors about years worth of bribes he and his fellow officers received for doling out gun permits — everything from cash, prostitutes and expensive watches to baseball memorabilia and exotic vacations.
David Villanueva, an ex-supervisor in the NYPD’s License Division, said he and other cops — including officers Richard Ochetel and Robert Espinel and Lt. Paul Dean — were on the take for years from so-called gun expeditors.
In exchange, the officers doled out pistol permits like candy — even to people who should not have had them, Villanueva said.
One expeditor, he said, may have had ties to organized crime. Another got help with 100 gun permits over the years — “none” of which should have been approved.

–– ADVERTISEMENT ––

Villanueva gave the testimony at the Manhattan federal court trial of John Chambers, a self-described gun lawyer to the stars accused of plying Villanueva with lavish gifts, including an $8,500 diamond-studded watch and tickets to Broadway shows, in exchange for gun permits.
Villanueva, who pleaded guilty and is cooperating with the feds, walked the jury through each expeditor.
Frank Soohoo, who pleaded guilty in 2016, plied Villanueva and Ochetel with trips to the Bahamas, Mexico and Hawaii, the ex-police sergeant said. Soohoo also threw lavish parties at his Queens gun store for the officers and occasionally hired hookers to attend, Villanueva said.
In exchange, Soohoo got help getting permits, including advice on how to help a client who was “federally barred” from legally owning a gun, Villanueva said.
Expeditor Alex “Shaya” Lichtenstein, who has also pleaded guilty, paid $1,000 per gun permit, Villanueva said. In exchange, he was granted at least 100 of them between 2012 and 2015 — none of which should have been approved because paperwork was missing, Villanueva said.

Chambers provided Villanueva with dinners, tickets to Broadway shows, clothes, watches and baseball memorabilia, the ex-sergeant said, including autographed photos of Alex Rodriguez and Mickey Mantle and a signed Willie Randolph baseball.
Prosecutors also passed around the $8,500 watch they say Chambers gave Villanueva in exchange for his helping a client whose licenses were at risk because he failed to report multiple domestic violence incidents.
Villanueva said he was able to help the man — accused of beating his wife — keep two of his four gun licenses, including one for his residence.
Officers Dean and Espinel have denied the government’s bribe allegations and are awaiting trial. Ochetel has pleaded guilty.
Villanueva will take the stand again on Wednesday.

Categories
Cops

I Like this Guy!

A Georgia sheriff, whose politically incorrect welcome sign went viral in 2015, has a new, bold message for visitors to his county.

“Our citizens have concealed weapons,” the welcome sign reads in part. “If you kill someone, we might kill you back.”

But it doesn’t stop there.

harris_county1
Harris County Sheriff Mike Jolley’s new concealed carry sign went viral.  (WTVM)

“Enjoy your stay!” the sign added. “We have ONE jail and 356 cemeteries.”
Jolley’s previous sign in 2015 defended the American flag and Christmas. He paid $553 for the sign out of his own pocket.
The text read: “WARNING: Harris County is politically incorrect. We say: Merry Christmas, God Bless America and In God We Trust. We salute our troops and our flag. If this offends you…LEAVE!”
At the time, Jolley told “FOX & Friends” he was “humbled” after receiving so much support, especially in his community, where he said people made supportive yard signs and t-shirts.

Harris County's Mike Jolley explains on 'Fox & Friends' the statement he's making about his department's patriotism

The politically incorrect sheriff didn’t shy away from talking about those who disagree with him, either.
“I spent 20 years in the army to give everyone the right to disagree with me or anyone else,” Jolley said. “Hopefully, if they disagree, they can voice that opinion. But if it offends them, truly offends them, maybe they’re in the wrong country.”

Categories
Cops

This would probably not happen here with our PD

Toronto police officer draws praise for refusing to shoot van suspect

TORONTO (Reuters) – A Toronto police officer who refused to shoot the man suspected of plowing a van into crowds of pedestrians on Monday, killing 10 people, was praised for restraint in the face of a suspect who claimed to have a gun.

A damaged van seized by police is seen after multiple people were struck at a major intersection northern Toronto, Ontario, Canada, April 23, 2018. REUTERS/Saul Porto

Video footage showed the police officer staring down the suspect at gunpoint in the middle of a street, while the man pointed what appeared to be a gun and shouted “Kill me.” The video, obtained by CBC News, showed the suspect repeatedly pulling an object from his side and aiming at police.
The arrest was praised as a welcome example of police restraint in the midst of chaos, coming just minutes after a white rental van plowed into a lunchtime crowd in north Toronto, killing 10 people and injuring 15 in one of the most violent incidents in Canadian history.
As the suspect shouted “Kill me,” the officer replied, “No, get down.” When the suspect said, “I have a gun in my pocket,” the officer responded: “I don’t care. Get down.”
Toronto police identified the man arrested as Alek Minassian, 25, of Richmond Hill, a neighborhood close to Toronto.
“It’s quite apparent that the suspect was trying to be executed. He was really looking for ‘suicide-by-cop,’” Gary Clement, a retired Royal Canadian Mounted Police superintendent with 34 years experience of policing, told Reuters.

The Toronto Police Service declined to name the officer involved in the stand-off, but Clement said he appeared to be a “very seasoned and mature officer.”
“I would say this individual met the right police officer,” Clement said. “Nobody knows how they’re going to react. In this situation a lot of it comes down to muscle memory. This guy reacted in a very mature manner.”
Toronto Police Chief Mark Saunders said the officer’s behavior reflected the “high caliber of training that takes place.
“They are taught to use as little force as possible in any given situation,” he said.

ADVERTISING

It helped that the officer had a clear view of the suspect, who was out of the van and pacing between the sidewalk and the arresting officer, Clement said.
The non-violent end to the standoff won plaudits on social media.
“Wow, at how these Canadian cops brought in this suspected killer,” said Twitter user Stuart A. Thompson in a posting.
Police in the United States have been criticized for being too quick to pull the trigger after a series of high-profile police shootings and deaths of suspects during arrest.
Witnesses in Toronto expressed horror at the murders.
Young Lee, a 56-year-old attorney, looked out his third-floor office window on Yonge Street and was shocked to see medics attempting to resuscitate two of the victims.

Suspect in Toronto attack charged with murder

“I’ve never seen violence like this here in Toronto,” Lee said. “I felt a mix of rage and a lot of sympathy for the victims.”

Reporting by Matt Scuffham; Editing by Leslie Adler

Categories
Cops Well I thought it was funny!

How not to react with the Cops while drunk

https://youtu.be/QoX-RHjs0jA Attachments area Preview YouTube video Bodycam Shows Police Arrest Belligerent 18 Year-Old Girl C

Categories
Anti Civil Rights ideas & "Friends" Born again Cynic! California Cops Fieldcraft Related Topics

I wonder if I made it? or just another right of ours gone forever!

Homeland Security to compile database of journalists and ‘media influencers’

Sun-Times newsroom (Rich Hein/Sun-Times)
The Department of Homeland Security wants to track the comings and going of journalists, bloggers and other “media influencers” through a database.
The DHS’s “Media Monitoring” plan, which was first reported by FedBizOpps.gov, would give the contracting company “24/7 access to a password protected, media influencer database, including journalists, editors, correspondents, social media influencers, bloggers etc.” in order to “identify any and all media coverage related to the Department of Homeland Security or a particular event.”

The database would be designed to monitor the public activities of media members and influencers by “location, beat and influencers,” the document says.
The chosen contractor should be able to “present contact details and any other information that could be relevant including publications this influencer writes for, and an overview of the previous coverage published by the influencer.”
Also, the contractor would have access to a password protected, mobile app that provides an “overview of search results in terms of online articles and social media conversations,” in several different languages such as Arabic, Chinese and Russian.
The request comes amid concerns regarding accuracy in media and the potential for U.S. elections and policy to be influenced via “fake news.”
The plan calls for the ability to track 290,000 news sources including online, print, broadcast and social media. Also, it would have the ability to track media coverage in over 100 languages, along with the “ability to create unlimited data tracking, statistical breakdown, and graphical analyses on ad-hoc basis.”