Category: War

.45 ACP History: ‘The Lord’s Caliber’ & John Browning’s Legacy by Paul Peterson

Post author By Grumpy
Post date February 4, 2026
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Few firearms have captured a nation’s spirit quite like John Moses Browning’s vaunted M1911. Rugged, reliable, cleverly engineered, and utterly lethal, this homegrown handgun is as American as baseball and blue jeans.

Yet, what would the legendary 1911 be without the potent and equally loved .45 ACP cartridge that Browning designed to go with it?

Even though it’s dubbed “the Lord’s caliber” thanks to its widespread popularity – and dare I say, righteous stopping power – I feel we’ve come to take the .45 ACP a bit for granted these days. Here’s a closer look at the story behind a pistol cartridge that helped define American small arms for over a century.

Table of Contents

.45 ACP History
Basic Ballistics & Specs
Pros & Cons
Final Thoughts

.45 ACP History

Historic 1911 Pictures — The Browning-designed Colt M1911 and its later variants stand as America’s longest-serving military pistol. (Photos: Library of Congress)

Developed in 1904, the story behind the .45 Automatic Colt Pistol (commonly .45 Auto and .45 ACP) is tied directly to America’s rise to prominence on the world stage. While the genius of the cartridge came squarely from the mind of Browning, it was actually the U.S. Army that determined the need for a .45-caliber bullet.

This owed much to two factors. First, America’s cavalry at the turn of the 19th century was on the hunt for something to replace the aging Colt Single Action Army revolvers chambered for the rimmed .45 Long Colt.

Browning Pistol Patent — The original John M. Browning design for what became the Colt M1911 included a 15-page patent application with 38 points of claim and three sheets of drawings. (Image: U.S. Patent Number 984,519)

.45 ACP Ammo — The .45 Long Colt on the left is taller and has an exposed rim at its base. This was fine for revolvers but problematic in semi-auto pistol actions. Hence, the shorter, rimless .45 ACP on the right. (Photo: Paul Peterson/Guns.com)

Meanwhile, a pressing second factor emerged from battlefield experiences during the Philippine-American War (1899-1902) and the Moro Rebellion (1902-1913) in the Philippines. American troops reported poor performance from their smaller .38-caliber revolvers during the campaign.

Frontline reports rolled in, describing harrowing hand-to-hand encounters with enemy fighters who simply shrugged off multiple hits from the U.S. Army’s rimmed .38 Long Colt, which was only recently adopted in 1892. This kicked off a hunt for something new and more powerful.

Ammunition of various calibers — The .45 Long Colt is on the far left. The .45 ACP is the fat and short one two spots over. On the scale of common handgun calibers going all the way down to .22 LR on the far right, the thick .45s stand out. (Photo: Paul Peterson/Guns.com)

From the extensive Thompson-La Garde ballistic report in 1904, the army concluded its findings with the following determination: “After mature deliberation, the Board finds that a bullet which will have the shock effect and stopping power at short ranges necessary for a military pistol or revolver should have a caliber not less than 0.45.”

So, the stage was set, and the U.S. Army wanted a .45 caliber projectile similar to the .45 Long Colt already in use with the cavalry. It did not, however, want to return to a slow single-action-only revolver after its intense close-combat experiences in the Philippines.

LA GARDE STUDY — The caliber issue spawned a vibrant academic and practical debate across the U.S. military that pushed medical tech and know-how for the time. Col. Louis A. La Garde continued to publish works on terminal ballistics even beyond the adoption of the .45 ACP and into his retirement. Testing included live-tissue experiments on cattle and even well-seasoned oak. Similarly, early skiagram (X-ray) technology provided insightful glimpses into internal gunshot trauma. (Gunshot Injuries: How They Are Inflicted, Their Complications, and Treatment – 1916)

Gunshot Study Pics — Beyond the battlefield, reports of handgun calibers failing in the field included the case of Antonio Caspi, who survived multiple shots from .38 Colts while attempting a prison escape in 1905. (Gunshot Injuries: How They Are Inflicted, Their Complications, and Treatment – 1916)

At the time, Browning and Colt were already working on a .41-caliber prototype cartridge to go with a new semi-automatic pistol design from Browning. They responded to the new request for a .45-caliber cartridge by essentially redeveloping Browning’s handgun design and .41-caliber cartridge. This led to the Colt 1905, which was the first handgun chambered for the new .45 ACP.

Retro Colt 1911 Ads — Colt tapped deep into the 1911’s battlefield prowess for its ads. (Vintage Colt Advertisements)

Later U.S. Army trials led to the adoption of both Browning’s .45 ACP cartridge and 1911 pistol. Thus, one of the world’s most iconic caliber-gun duos of all time was born. The M1911 chambered for .45 ACP went on to become America’s longest-serving military handgun.

Its military record from 1911 until the mid-1980s made it a household name. But its performance on and off the battlefield made it a legend.

Basic Ballistics & Specs

Like the British .455 Webley, the .45 ACP was a straight-wall design that leaned heavily on the sheer mass of the bullet over velocity to do much of the downrange damage. Unlike the rimmed Webley casing and Browning’s earlier semi-rimmed .32 ACP, the new .45 ACP was a truly rimless cartridge.

Both the straight wall and rimless profile were meant to help the .45 ACP function specifically inside semi-auto firearms that fed from magazines instead of cylinders. At first, the Colt 1905 was tested with 200-grain bullets, but this was increased to 230 grains for what became the standard .45 ACP.

Before we dig into muzzle velocities and other data points, it’s worth highlighting that the U.S. military was very, very interested in terminal performance over simply specs. To that end, the Thompson-La Garde Tests from 1904 took a rather gruesome turn with testing on live animals.

9mm and .45 ACP — The 115-grain 9mm Luger on the left is half the weight of the 230-grain .45 ACP on the right. (Photo: Paul Peterson/Guns.com)

Bullets — The .45 ACP on the left gets its effectiveness from its large 230-grain mass. The lighter 124-grain 9mm on the right relies more on its velocity. (Photo: Paul Peterson/Guns.com)

This included a head-to-head comparison of the effects of close-range fire on living cattle with a .45-caliber projectile and a rising star in the 9mm Luger. Here are two brief but graphic excerpts of the results:

Blunt .45 Caliber: “9:46:30 A.M. Animal shot through lungs from left to right; fell to the floor at the sixth shot. Hemorrhage was free from one of the perforations in the right side. The animal was very much excited and kept jumping from side to side until she fell to the floor. Death occurred at 9:49 A.M.”

9mm Luger: “10:15 A.M. Animal was shot from left to right. There was an interval of one minute between the second and third shots, due to a hitch in the working of the pistol.

At 10:18:15 A.M., when the animal had been shot eight times, there was a short interval on account of reloading the magazine. Two shots were fired through the abdomen; at this time the animal was bleeding from the mouth.

After twelve shots had been fired the cow was still standing and had to be killed by the hammer. Ten shots were fired through the lungs and two through the abdomen in this experiment.”

As gruesome as the testing was, the clear impression left on the U.S. military was that the hefty .45 delivered with its heavy weight what the 9mm couldn’t with higher velocities. That terminal performance is still largely represented in the basic ballistics of modern 9mm and .45 ACP ammunition.

Here’s a quick comparison of basic, 124-grain 9mm FMJ and 230-grain .45 ACP FMJ.

9mm versus .45ACP Ballistics — While this is only the most basic of ballistic comparisons, it still highlights some shining qualities of the .45 ACP. First, we see its superior foot-pounds of energy over the faster 9mm out to 50 yards. But we can also see that it maintains its energy remarkably well. This only partly explains what the U.S. Army observed in its live-tissue testing. Regardless, it’s indicative of the mythical “stopping power” all militaries have pursued since the introduction of firearms to the battlefield. (Image: Federal Premium Ballistic Calculator)

Federal .45 ACP Ammo — Another bonus for the .45 ACP is that it’s a standby round for America’s manufacturers. That means there is a lot of quality ammo and plenty of guns to shoot it. (Photo: Paul Peterson/Guns.com)

You can also compare the .45 ACP stats from above to the rather anemic black-powder 150-grain .38 Long Colt, which offered velocities ranging from 650 to 750 fps. That put it at a mere 140 to 187 foot-pounds of energy. Even the switch to modern smokeless powder only bumped velocities to 750-800 fps. That left it at a relatively low 187-213 foot-pounds of energy.

For the modern shooter, there’s another benefit to the .45 ACP’s slower velocity. The increasing popularity of suppressors benefits from the subsonic speeds generated by the .45 ACP. Normal muzzle velocities for the .45 ACP generally fall between 800 and 900 fps, staying well below the speed of sound (1,125 fps at sea level in 68 degrees Fahrenheit).

Since this slow-flying bullet has enough mass to make up for its velocity, there’s a good reason .45 ACP is a popular suppressor round for handguns and pistol-caliber carbines. This quality was well known to gun designers in the 20th century, with firearms like the integrally suppressed British De Lisle commando carbine using the slow-moving .45 ACP as a quiet sentry killer in World War II.

Pros & Cons

1911 Pistols

Here are my top five pros and cons for the iconic .45 ACP. Keep in mind that modern specialty loads can vary greatly, so these are only based on the most general characteristics of the cartridge.

Pros:

Strong terminal ballistics due to heavy weight
Suppressor-friendly velocities
Reliable semi-auto design
Common and easily found caliber
Over 100 years of proven performance

Cons:

Large size lowers magazine capacities
More expensive than 9mm
Low velocities for longer ranges
Usually more recoil than calibers like 9mm
Heavier overall weights for carrying

Final Thoughts

There’s something to be said about the authority that comes with slinging 230-grain freedom pellets. (Photo: Paul Peterson/Guns.com)

The sheer number of 1911-type firearms still in production, with new variants arriving every year, is a solid testament to just how much America is still in love with Browning’s design. The .45 ACP remains a part of that legacy.

I have no doubt the caliber debate will continue to rage well beyond even the modern era’s “9mm vs. everyone else” trend. As for the classic .45 ACP, I can’t imagine it leaving the American marketplace in my lifetime. Anything is possible, but I think there are too many shooters who love the round for its history and performance to let it just fade away.

In fact, it’s still well-respected for its terminal performance and suppressor-friendly qualities. That has kept it as a go-to option for many law enforcement groups and private citizens. It’s also still a common feature inside Special Operations arsenals, even if its general military use has largely waned.

The “Lord’s caliber” gets the job done.

Art The Green Machine This great Nation & Its People War

The Battle of Caloocan

The Battle of Caloocan was one of the opening engagements of the Philippine–American War, and was fought between an American force under the command of Arthur MacArthur Jr. and Filipino defenders led by Antonio Luna in February 1899.

American troops launched a successful attack on the Filipino-held settlement of Caloocan on February 10, which was part of an offensive planned by MacArthur Jr. Occurring a few days after an American victory near Manila on February 4–5, the engagement once again demonstrated the military superiority that American forces held over the Philippine Revolutionary Army.

However, it was not the decisive strike that MacArthur had hoped for, and the war continued for another three years.

Our Great Kids War

The whole 9 yards of 50 cal. for each gun just add one really brave man!

Post author By Grumpy
Post date February 3, 2026
No Comments on The whole 9 yards of 50 cal. for each gun just add one really brave man!

The Green Machine This great Nation & Its People War

How a Wrecked Chinook Came Home from Hell by Will Dabbs

Post author By Grumpy
Post date February 2, 2026
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America burned through a quarter-billion dollars in airplanes to save one man. We also salvaged a shot-up Chinook off a murderous Afghan mountainside. If that sounds gloriously unhinged, that is because it absolutely was.

Lockheed Martin MC-130J Commando II refueling an MH-60 Black Hawk during special operations support — The Lockheed Martin MC-130J Commando II, shown here refueling an MH60 Blackhawk, is a versatile and effective special operations platform. Public domain.

The Brutal Math Behind a $254 Million Rescue

The Lockheed Martin MC-130J Commando II version of the venerable Hercules cargo plane costs about $114.2 million apiece. We burned two of them to cinders in Iran when we couldn’t get their landing gear unstuck after rescuing that downed F15 WSO (Weapon System Operator) on Easter morning of 2026. The details captivated the planet. Somebody will no doubt eventually make an awesome movie about it.

MH6 Little Bird helicopters cost between $2.5 and $7.5 million each, depending upon their combat loadout. These adorable little warplanes are inimitably nimble and versatile. We transported them into an improvised forward airfield inside the C130’s and then used them to effect the actual rescue. However, once the C-130’s were toast, the Little Birds lacked the legs to get back to friendly territory. When it became obvious that these machines were also doomed, the onsite commander opted to blow them in place as well.

A-10 Thunderbolt II Warthog attack aircraft in flight during training formation — The A10 Thunderbolt II is one bug-ugly airplane. However, it is just too awesome to quit. Public domain.

In addition to these four perfectly serviceable combat aircraft, we also lost an A10 Warthog to ground fire. Nobody has any idea what a Warthog costs. Their production run wrapped up in 1984. Current estimates are that this gloriously unattractive ground attack plane is worth about $20 million. Additionally, a pair of USAF HH-60W Jolly Green II rescue helicopters got liberally ventilated. They cost $40 million each. However, let’s assume that these two aircraft were repairable.

If my math is correct, we spent some $254 million in airplanes to rescue that one Air Force Colonel. Many of our detractors, particularly in Europe, sneered at us for engaging in such lopsided military economics.

It was clearly ludicrous to spend such an astronomical sum just to save one guy. Speaking solely for myself, screw every last one of them. That operation was worth every penny.

American industry is likely busy building us replacement airframes as I type these very words. I hope those defense executives get to buy themselves lovely new boats. That Air Force Colonel will get to spend the Fourth of July with his family rather than being burned alive in a cage somewhere or paraded around in front of Iranian cameras. A quarter of a billion dollars was a freaking bargain.

Aircraft Losses and Rescue Cost Breakdown

Aircraft	Cost	Article Context
MC-130J Commando II	$114.2 million apiece	Two burned after the rescue in Iran
MH6 Little Bird	Between $2.5 and $7.5 million each	Used in the rescue, then destroyed in place
A10 Thunderbolt II	About $20 million	Lost to ground fire
HH-60W Jolly Green II	$40 million each	Two were hit, assumed repairable
Total Spent	$254 million	To rescue one Air Force Colonel

DART Math: Why Recovering Wrecked Aircraft Still Makes Sense

Recovered battle-damaged military aircraft demonstrating the value of DART operations — Recovering battle-damaged combat aircraft is a cost-effective undertaking. Public domain.

The military term is DART. That stands for Downed Aircraft Recovery Team. These machines are indeed lyrically expensive. It is almost always a good idea to get them back once they are damaged in combat so they can be repaired. However, that is easy to say and often very difficult to do.

During my time in Army Aviation, I took part in three of these operations. In the case of a USAF F15C and a British SEPECAT Jaguar, these two fighter planes were veritably pulverized. We just flew the guys and gear out to tidy up the mess and placate the EPA. However, at one point, one of our CH47D helicopters clipped a tree and shredded a couple of rotor blades deep in the boonies.

Swapping those puppies out in the middle of no place was tough, and we didn’t have anybody shooting at us. Starting on 4 March 2002, the young studs of the Army’s Task Force 160 SOAR (Special Operations Aviation Regiment) had to do something similar under hugely more difficult circumstances.

Takur Gar: Where the CH-47 Chinook Recovery Story Really Begins

Airstrike in Tora Bora in 2002 during the early Global War on Terror — This is a picture of an airstrike in Tora Bora back in 2002. Such chaos as this displaced al Qaeda terrorists across the countryside. Public domain.

The Global War on Terror was only six months old, and the world was trying to find its new level. In Afghanistan, that meant that US Special Operations forces were keeping busy killing absolutely everybody who had anything to do with al Qaeda and their ilk. As SOCOM chased down the squirters from the Battle of Tora Bora, things came to a head on a forlorn mountaintop called Takur Gar.

Takur Gar is a 10,000-foot mountain peak in the Arma Mountains of southwest Afghanistan. If misery was a mineral you mined out of the ground, this is where you would go to find it. The mission was to drive al Qaeda and Taliban fighters into blocking positions manned by elements of the 101^st Airborne and 10^th Mountain divisions.

Why the CH-47 Chinook Was the Only Beast for the Job

CH-47 Chinook heavy-lift helicopter in Army service showing the platform used in Afghanistan — I got to fly most of the Army’s rotary-wing combat aircraft back in the day. Surprisingly, the Chinook was the coolest of the lot. Public domain.

I’m biased, because I flew these things. However, I flew guns, scouts, and lift aircraft as well. The CH47 is hands-down the baddest helicopter in the Army’s inventory. Faster than any other Army rotorcraft, the Chinook is just insanely powerful.

That gives it better high altitude performance than lesser machines. I have actually taken stripped-down Chinooks to around 22,000 feet to fly over the top of Mount McKinley in Alaska. It is an amazing airplane. That made it the go-to aircraft for operations in the rarefied mountains of Afghanistan.

Early in the morning on 4 MAR 2002, MH47E tail number 476 of the TF 160 Night Stalkers was inserting troops onto Takur Gar when it came under intense fire. The aircraft was raked with enemy automatic weapons and actually took more than one RPG round.

Staggering under the onslaught, the big Chinook shuddered, and Petty Officer Neil Roberts, a Navy SEAL, was thrown out of the back. Roberts survived the fall only to be killed later. An attempted recovery resulted in the destruction of another MH47, tail number 475.

Battle-damaged MH-47E tail number 476 after emergency landing below Takur Gar — MH47E tail number 476 was more or less intact, but it was no longer airworthy. Recovering that massive machine from the side of a 10,000-foot mountain was a herculean task.

475 was disabled at the top of the mountain. There resulted a pitched battle that was explored in the book Not a Good Day to Die, which is a great read. It is available on Amazon. 476, however, limped off to an emergency landing some six clicks away and 2,000 feet below the summit. While a bit removed from the chaos, 476 was nonetheless still deep in the suck.

475 was toast. An American fighter-bomber blew it to smithereens. However, 476 still had potential. It might yet be saved.

How Do You Recover a Shot-Up 54,000-Pound Helicopter?

Damaged MH-47E Chinook 476 showing heavy combat damage from automatic weapons and RPG fire — 476 had seen better days. A combination of enemy automatic weapons fire and RPG’s had taken a heavy toll. Among other things, the avionics were shot.

A fully-loaded MH47E tops out at 54,000 pounds. This example was disabled high up on the side of a desolate mountain surrounded by psychopathic nutjob lunatics. Getting that bird back home promised to be a Gordian challenge.

TF160 maintenance crews and pilots flew to the site and swarmed over the disabled machine, taking off everything they could to cut down on weight. They considered another Chinook as well as a Marine CH53E Sea Stallion to do the heavy lifting, but neither aircraft had the horsepower to lift what remained of the machine. Then somebody tracked down a Soviet-era Mi26 with a Russian civilian crew. That would be expensive, but it could do the job.

They had to leave the aircraft unguarded for a time during this process. To ensure that terrorists had not boobytrapped the machine, the SEALs planted desirable swag like food, water, and warm clothes in the cabin.

They knew that, if someone had been mucking around with the disabled helicopter, they would have kept the food and comfort items. When they found this stuff unmolested, they knew they were good to proceed.

Task Force 160 maintenance crew cutting MH-47E rotor blades off with a saw during field recovery — TF160 maintenance guys had to cut the rotor blades off with a saw.

Getting stuff off the aircraft at these high altitudes was not easy. Using a Gator ATV, they eventually recovered one of the Chinook’s two engines. The other was too heavy, and the guys were too smoked to manage. That power plant had to be abandoned. They had to cut the rotor blades off with a rescue saw.

The Wild Recovery: Rangers, Night Stalkers, and a Russian Mi-26

Recovery crew using severed CH-47 rotor blades as ramps to salvage one engine from the wreck — These resourceful young studs used the severed blades as ramps to salvage one of the big Chinook’s two engines.

The recovery team emptied the fuel tanks onto the ground. OSHA and the EPA have limited jurisdiction in the desolate mountains of Afghanistan. As US troops came and went from the site, they would be regularly fired upon. After removing both engines, the rotor blades, the refuel probe, the gun mounts, sundry avionics, and as much ancillary gear as possible, they were ready to try it.

The recovery team consisted of four flyable MH47E’s, an F18 Super Hornet, several AH64 Apaches, an orbiting UAV, and a buttload of Rangers for security. Once they had the hulk rigged for slingload, they called in the Mi26.

Soviet-era Mi-26 heavy-lift helicopter carrying the ruined Chinook out of the Afghan mountains — The only machine with sufficient horsepower to slingload a Chinook carcass off the side of a mountain in Afghanistan was an ex-Soviet Mi26. That’s a big honking helicopter.

That was easier said than done. However, one of the 160^th troops was a former Russian linguist who could interpret for the Mi26 crew. With the Mi26 stripped down to just fuel, they hooked up to 476 and pulled pitch.

The massive Mi26 made it look easy. The big Russian helicopter lifted the Chinook to Gardez and topped off with gas. From there, they moved to Kabul International Airport and then on to Bagram.

When the maintenance crews finally tore through the airframe, they recovered multiple spent enemy rounds that they distributed to the original crew members. The Hulk was eventually recovered to the US and completely rebuilt. 476 subsequently flew in combat again. Chances are, it is still flying today. That thing seems to be unkillable.

Why Chinook 476 Still Matters

Recovered Chinook 476 after salvage operation that returned the aircraft to combat service — It was a modern-day miracle that TF160 maintenance personnel were able to salvage Chinook 476. However, they had the big machine back flying combat missions in short order.

Much was learned from the recovery of tail number 476 from the side of Takur Gar. Not least among these was the development of a lightweight spider crane that could be air deployable and facilitate the removal of heavy stuff like engines and rotor blades. The combat recovery of 476 represented the first successful battlefield salvage of a battle-damaged US Army helicopter since the Vietnam War.

Machines as complicated as the CH47 have their own personalities. Some of the rotor systems are tracked out to run smoothest at high speeds. Others have a sweet spot at slower velocities.

These aircraft not infrequently have electronic quirks that you come to recognize after a little stick time in them. In my day, certain aircraft were wired for a boom box so you could rock out while flying NOE (nap-of-the-earth), while others were not.

Army Chinook crew chiefs and flight engineers whose bond with the aircraft drove the recovery mission — Those crew dogs did so love their machines.

In the Army, the crew dogs own the airplanes. We pilots just borrowed them for a while. It was their names stenciled on the outside, not ours. As our flight engineers and crew chiefs flew with us and shouldered all the same risks and responsibilities, this created a fiercely powerful bond between these machines and the guys who kept them flying. In the combat recovery of tail number 476, we see this mystical connection on most glorious display.

All About Guns War

SCHWARZLOSE MACHINE GUN — THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN ARMY M.07/12 By Peter Suciu

Post author By Grumpy
Post date February 2, 2026
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Prior to the First World War, the nations of Europe made Hiram Maxim a very wealthy man. Maxim accomplished this with his machine gun, which was adopted by numerous nations in Europe and beyond. However, one of the major powers on the European continent wasn’t convinced — namely Austria-Hungary.

Hungarian troops train with the water-cooled Schwarzlose machine gun. Image: József Horváth/Fortepan

The reasoning isn’t fully clear, but one factor could be that the empire had a robust arms industry in Bohemia (the modern-day Czech Republic). Also, the fact that a member of the royal family, Archduke Karl Salvator, helped Colonel von Dormus of the Austro-Hungarian Army develop an early competitor to the Maxim Gun may have certainly played a role.

Salvator-Dormus M1893 Machine Gun

Patented in 1888, it has become known as the Model 1893 as that was when the weapon was first adopted by the Austro-Hungarian Navy (a year after Salvator’s death). It also came to be known as the Skoda machine gun by virtue of being manufactured at the Skoda Works.

In this image from 1942, a Schwarzlose M.07/12 machine gun is mounted on a three-legged anti-aircraft stand. Image: Konok Tamás/Fortepan

With nearly a century and a half of hindsight in machine gun design looking back at it, the Salvator-Dormus 1893 machine gun is certainly an odd design — incorporating a mix of forward-looking elements with features that already seemed antiquated. It was chambered for the 8x50R smokeless cartridge and had an adjustable cyclic rate of fire, which could be set as low as 175 rpm or as high as 500 rpm.

It was fed from a unique fixed feed tower, which could be fed by an assistant gunner as the weapon was fired. The guns were reportedly reliable and could fire for upwards of nine minutes without stoppage. While it may have worked well as a naval gun, or in fixed positions, the Salvator-Dormus 1893 wasn’t considered ideal for infantry.

In this 1920 photograph, troops of the Second Polish Republic man a Schwarzlose heavy machine gun during the Polish-Soviet War. Image: National Digital Archives of Poland

At least one saw use in combat during the Boxer Rebellion as it fired from the Austro-Hungarian battlecruiser when the warship was deployed to Peking. The U.S. military was offered a chance to test the Salvator-Dormus 1893 machine gun in China after the Boxer Rebellion, but only 600 rounds of ammunition were provided. The U.S. assessment was that it was reliable, but not able to endure the rigors of field use.

Some sources suggest a limited number may have been employed during the First World War, but that cannot be confirmed. One of the few surviving examples is in the collection in the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum — Militärhistorisches Institute (the Museum of Military History — Military History Institute) in Vienna, Austria.

Enter the Schwarzlose M.07/12 Heavy Machine Gun

The Austro-Hungarian military was far from satisfied with the Salvator-Dormus 1893 machine gun, but instead of adopting the Maxim, it again sought to forge its own path with help from the Prussian-born arms designer Andreas Wilhelm Schwarzlose.

Royal Hungarian Army soldiers sit for this 1924 unit photograph at the Batthyány barracks in Pécs. The machine guns are the Schwarzlose M.07/12. Image: Bakó Jenő/Fortepan

He began development of a new machine gun in 1902 that employed a toggle-delayed lock, using a concept he first developed for a toggle-delayed pistol concept. As Schwarzlose had primarily been a handgun designer, it took several years for his design to be finalized.

Unlike the Maxim, the water-cooled machine gun had a fixed barrel, few moving parts, and a breach that was at no time truly locked, while it had a straightforward blowback mechanism. When the weapon fired, the rearward thrust of the exploding gases started the action opening at the same instant as it caused the bullet to move down the barrel. As it employed a very short barrel and a combination of extremely heavy recoil parts and springs, the weapon could employ a rifle cartridge. It had a cyclic rate of 400 to 500 rounds per minute, and it fired from a 250-round fabric belt.

This 1916 photograph shows a Lohner B.VII version of the Austrian-developed, two-seat light bomber aircraft. It used a rear mounted Schwarzlose machine gun. Image: Saly Noémi/Fortepan

First introduced in 1907, it featured a lubricating pump to lubricate each cartridge for ease of extraction, but it was subsequently rebuilt and a time extraction issue was addressed. That removed the need for the pump, but the machine gun still relied on a heavy bolt and a very strong recoil spring. It was also determined that the short barrel would result in a significant muzzle flash that could blind the gunner at night, and a cone-shaped dedicated flash hider was introduced to suppress the flash.

Designated the Schwarzlose M.07/12, it was employed by the Austro-Hungarian Army during the First World War, and like most of the machine guns of the era, it was used with a mount that weighed more than the actual weapon. However, that helped stabilize the weapon.

In 1939, Hungarian soldiers practice with a Schwarzlose M.07/12 in the vicinity of Honvéd Street in Budapest, Hungary. Image: Kókány Jenő/Fortepan

The M.07/12 was typically operated by a crew of three that included an NCO, a gunner who carried the weapon, and a third soldier who served as the ammunition carrier and loader. In practice, a fourth soldier was also employed to carry the tripod.

At the start of the war, the Austro-Hungarian Army fielded more than 100 infantry regiments, and each company included four platoons and a complement of 267 soldiers. However, the M.07/12 was relatively scarce as machine gun detachments were organized at the battalion level.

In 1941, these soldiers man a Schwarzlose machine gun mounted in a rail car in the Pécs railway station. Image: Lissák Tivadar/Fortepan

Austro-Hungarian Aviation Troops (k.u.k. Luftfahrtruppen) were equipped with the modified M.07/12/R16, an air-cooled variant. Due to a time delay between the trigger movement and the moment the bullet leaves the barrel, the weapon presented challenges in synchronizing it for use with fighters — and while the issues were eventually overcome, it was subsequently phased out of service as more suitable aircraft weapons became available.

Used by Austria and Beyond

The Schwarzlose M.07/12 was produced by Österreichische Waffenfabriks-Gesellschaft (OeWG), Steyr, and from 1914 to 1918 FGGY in Budapest. During World War I, Austria-Hungary also exported the M.07/12 to its Bulgarian and Ottoman Empire allies.

A Royal Hungarian Air Force officer administers an oath at a Kecskemét airport. In the foreground is a Schwarzlose machine gun. Also shown is a Heinkel He-70K reconnaissance aircraft. Image: Fortepan

After the First World War, The Schwarzlose saw use with the militaries of the newly independent Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland — as well as with the Austrian Army. The Netherlands and Sweden also acquired a number of the Austrian-designed machine guns, while a plethora of nations including Brazil, China, Colombia, Greece and Spain also adopted it in small numbers.

Beginning in 1924, the Czechoslovakian military converted the M.07/12 to 7.92x57mm and redesignated it the MG-7/24. Following the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, those weapons were subsequently employed by the German Wehrmacht and issued to the infantry divisions of the 5th and 6th Aufstellungswelle, which were mainly equipped with Czech weapons. At the end of the Second World War, the reserve stocks were issued to the Volksstrum (People’s Militia) forces.

These Polish soldiers stand in a trench during the Polish-Soviet War in 1919. Visible is the Schwarzlose M.07/12 machine gun. Image: National Digital Archives of Poland

The M.07/12 remained in service beyond the Second World War and was used to equip the early Czechoslovakian Army in the early stages of the Cold War.

In 1931, the M.07/12s in service with Austria were modified to use the new 8x56R cartridge, which provided a significantly higher muzzle velocity (2,300 fps, instead of about 1,900-2,000 with the 8x50R). In addition, the Hungarian Army’s Schwarzlose machine guns were modified to use the 8x56mm 31.M “Hegyes” cartridge around the same time.

During the Second World War, the Schwarzlose M.07/12 was adopted by the same armies that it had been employed against during the First World War — namely Italy and Romania. The former adopted a number and used them in the campaign in North Africa.

In 1938, Polish troops train with Schwarzlose machine guns using a road as a defensive position. Image: National Digital Archives of Poland

The Romanian versions were converted to 7.62x54mmR — the same cartridge used by the Mosin-Nagant rifle. These also were fitted with a longer barrel and lengthened water jacket. However, those firearms appear to have seen little use in World War II — but according to some sources, the machine guns were used against German and Hungarian forces after the Kingdom of Romania left the Axis and joined the Allies as a co-belligerent. Thus some Romanian forces used an Austro-Hungarian machine gun against the Hungarians!

The Romanian versions had been sold as parts kits in the early 2000s, and a number were offered for sale as deactivated “dummy” or display guns. Yet, even these non-firing examples have become extremely rare in recent years.

Schwarzlose Machine Gun in Popular Culture

The M.07/12 has only been seen in a handful of films over the years, first appearing in the 1931 French-German film Mountains of Fire, which chronicled the fighting in the Alps during the First World War. More recently, it is among the firearms seen in a weapons museum in John Wick: Chapter 3 — Parabellum.

The Czech M.07/24 has also appeared in several movies, in some cases standing in for the M.07/12.

The M.07/12 remains an innovative firearm that saw use in the First World War and beyond.

All About Guns Soldiering This great Nation & Its People War

First M16 Rifles in the Vietnam War By Robert A. Sadowski

Post author By Grumpy
Post date February 1, 2026
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In the late 1950s, there were basically two camps in the U.S. military on what the next service rifle should be — those who thought a service rifle should be made of wood and blued steel and wanted a modified version of the M1 Garand, and those who thought the future of the modern service rifle was with forged aluminum and polymer furniture.

US Navy sailors armed with M16A1 in Vietnam War — The Vietnam War was a pivotal time of change for the U.S. military’s primary rifle. The country moved from big, heavy rifles firing big, heavy bullets to easier-to-carry rifles firing light, fast rounds. Image: U.S. Navy

While the 5.56mm AR-15 today is so common and accepted that it’s viewed as the “standard” in self-loading rifle design, it is easy to forget how revolutionary it was in its day. In the 1950s (and before the AR-15 was introduced), there was the AR-10 battle rifle.

This radical approach to military rifle design used forged aluminum receivers — an upper and a lower — that were mated with a stock made of polymer — essentially plastic. The caliber was 7.62×51 mm NATO, the same as the M14, but it used a gas-operated, straight-line rotating-bolt system, which offered less recoil than the M14. In addition, it employed a direct gas-impingement system. While it might have come from the same era as the M14, it seemed like it was from a different planet in those days. [Read more about the M14 history.]

Pfc Michael Mendoza fires M16A1 in Vietnam War 1967 — Pfc. Michael J. Mendoza uses his M16A1 rifle to recon by fire. Earlier, the company received sniper fire from a valley in the Quang Ngai Province, Republic of Vietnam. Image: NARA

The military bureaucracy was at a stalemate with its heels dug in. A lot was at stake, especially the lucrative government contract. Adding more drama to an already tense and passionate situation, the U.S. military saw the potential benefits of a high-velocity .22-caliber cartridge rather than the more ponderous — but capable — 7.62x51mm round.

To address this, the AR-10 was scaled down to the .223 cartridge and the AR-15 was born. However, the M14 community was still not budging. The M14 had the benefit of a proven design based on the Garand, as well as truly capable, if somewhat traditional, chambering. Despite the fact that the AR-15 and the 5.56×46 mm NATO cartridge had shown great promise in initial testing, the U.S. military’s choice of the M14 over the AR-10 (as well as the FAL) had solidified the wood and steel rifle in the role of primary service rifle for the United States military — for now.

US soldier armed with a M16A1 rifle and AN-PVS-2 starlight scope in 1972 — A U.S. soldier armed with an M16A1 rifle in 1972. Mounted on the rifle is an AN/PVS-2 starlight scope. Image: NARA

However, the “aluminum and plastic” upstart would soon gain the upper hand. As is well known, the AR-15 platform eventually prevailed. So, let’s consider that journey.

In hindsight, it was easy to see that the AR-15 would ultimately prevail. Prior to the AR-15 becoming the M16, other factors shaped the evolution of our approach to warfare and the tools used to fight. Let’s take a 10,000-foot view of defense policy in the post-WWII era.

Cold War, Nuclear War, or Guerrilla Warfare?

After WWII and the first use of nuclear weapons, the role of the infantry soldier was thought to be played out in a nuclear battlefield. The nuclear arms race post-WWII had both sides rethinking what a post-nuclear war landscape would look like.

US Marine on patrol near Da Nang Vietnam carrying M16A1 — Pfc. John R. Hofstrand, armed with an M16A1, follows a trail during a search and clear operation south of the Da Nang airfield. Image: U.S. Marine Corps

Thankfully, the Cold War-era struggle did not take the form of an atomic mushroom cloud. Counterinsurgency was the new strategy in the unique form of warfare that developed with two opponents armed to the teeth with nukes. Since direct combat was not feasible (as it would effectively end our civilizations), proxy warfare became the norm in hotspots worldwide.

America’s approach was to help these countries fight communism by arming, teaching, and supporting our allies in limited wars in their own nations. Hence, rather than atomic stockpiles of weapons, an old-fashioned arsenal of specialized small arms became the focus. Throw in a few advisors for training, and you have a recipe for the Vietnam War.

Project Agile Is Approved

While the Advanced Research Projects Agency (or “ARPA”), tucked under the broader Defense Department umbrella, was originally organized to research ballistic missiles, in 1961, the Kennedy administration — with an interest in supporting our foreign allies in limited wars to stop communist aggression — approved Project Agile.

Lance Cpl Clements rests with M16A1 after a patrol through flooded rice patties south of Da Nang USMC — Lance Cpl. C. Clements rests with his M16A1 after a patrol through flooded rice patties south of Da Nang during the Vietnam War. Image: U.S. Marine Corps

Project Agile was designed to help remote areas of the world with counterinsurgency action against communist insurgents. Two areas, both in Indochina, were identified as under threat to Communist aggression. One was in Bangkok, and the other was in Saigon.

The average height of a Vietnamese soldier was five feet, and he weighed about 90 pounds. The ARPA was convinced by the original manufacturer of the AR-15 that the gun had a great deal of potential as a rifle for Vietnamese fighters since it was lightweight, capable and soft recoiling.

US Marine checks an enemy bunker with his M16A1 — A U.S. Marine cautiously checks an enemy bunker with his M16A1. The Marines encountered the bunker while on patrol south of Da Nang. Image: U.S. Marine Corps

ARPA requested AR-15s for this effort, only to be denied because there were plenty of M2 Carbines in storage that could be issued without spending budget on new guns.

The M2 Carbine was also lightweight and ideal for operators with small statures. The ARPA reintroduced its request and suggested that a limited number of AR-15s be used. They settled on asking for 1,000 rifles to only be used in Vietnam (and not Thailand), and the rifles would be tested against the M2 Carbine.

There were many other subprojects under Project Agile, such as ones that dealt with communications and logistics, as well as planning. However, the ARPA report for the AR-15 was titled “Task 13A” and compared the M2 Carbine to the AR-15 “to determine which is more suitable replacement for other shoulder weapons in selected units of the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces (RVNAF).”

The Result

I don’t need to tell you the outcome. You already know the AR-15 performed best with the “small stature of the Vietnamese soldier…”. We all know that the taller U.S. advisors liked how the new rifle performed, too. While the test helped ARPA in one of its many projects assist counterinsurgents by confirming the superiority of the AR-15 to the M2 Carbine, it also proved the readiness of the AR-15.

sailor loads M16 magazines on USS Harnett County on Vàm Cỏ Đông River Vietnam War — Sailor Lawrence W. Overton loads M16 magazines using stripper clips aboard the USS *Harnett County* (LST-821) on the Vàm Cỏ Đông in Vietnam. Image: U.S. Navy

Analysis of the AR-15 from both U.S. Advisors and Vietnamese commanders reported the AR-15 as “extremely favorable.” The lethality of the .223 round proved to be extraordinary. Users had a high respect for the AR-15 and preferred it to all other firearms available.

US Marine with M16A1 at Beirut airport Lebanon 1983 — The M16A1 continued to serve the U.S. military for many years. One is shown here in the hands of a Marine at the Beirut International Airport in Lebanon during 1983. Image: NARA

The first AR-15s in country did not have a forward assist, which is how the Air Force (the first adopter of the design) wanted the gun. The Army, however, insisted on a forward assist and originally designated the rifle the XM16E1; after the details were worked out, it was designated the M16A1.

Conclusion

The testing under Project Agile was the first time the rifle was used in Vietnam. In 1964, America’s broader involvement in Vietnam was officially begun with Congress passing the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which authorized direct U.S. military involvement in the nation. The rest is history.